Renaissance art refers to the painting, sculpture, and decorative arts created during the period of European history known as the Renaissance. This artistic style emerged in Italy around AD 1400, alongside advancements in philosophy, literature, music, science, and technology. The art of the Renaissance was based on the art of Classical antiquity, which was considered the most esteemed ancient tradition. However, it incorporated new artistic developments from Northern Europe and utilized current scientific knowledge. Together with Renaissance humanist philosophy, it spread over Europe, impacting artists and their customers by introducing novel techniques and artistic sensibilities. The Renaissance is distinguished by its emphasis on realism and expressiveness, utilization of light and shadow, concentration on human form and everyday life, and use of perspective.
Baroque art and architecture refer to the visual arts, building design, and construction that were created throughout the 17th century in Western art history. The first appearances of Baroque art, which took place in Italy, may be traced back to the late 16th century. However, in specific areas such as Germany and colonial South America, the most significant successes of the Baroque painting style did not occur until the 18th century. The distinguishing characteristic of the Baroque period is its stylistic complexity, which can even be contradictory at times. Typically, the underlying motivation for its various forms is to evoke emotions by appealing to the senses, in a dramatic manner. The key features of Baroque paintings and architecture are their grandeur, sensuous richness, dramatic nature, vigor, movement, tension, emotional intensity, and a tendency to dissolve the boundaries between different art forms.
Renaissance vs. Baroque Art
The Baroque and Renaissance art distinct periods whose historical context is essential for understanding their respective impacts on western art history (Hibbard, 1966). The Renaissance period, occurring approximately from the 14th to the 17th century, was a time of significant intellectual and cultural revival in Europe, driven by the renewed interest in classical philosophy, literature, and art. Renaissance music is characterized by its smooth, balanced harmonies, flowing melodies, and a polyphonic texture. During this period, humanism was highly valued. Artists such as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo aimed to depict the beauty of nature and the perfect human body. This resulted in artworks characterized by harmonious arrangements and peaceful stories.
The Baroque period, spanning from the late 16th to the mid-18th century, arose during a period of significant transformation marked by the Counter-Reformation and the emergence of nation-states. Baroque artists such as Caravaggio and Bernini included dramatic tension, grandeur, and a sense of movement into their artworks. This was a reflection of the turbulent time and the Church’s aspiration for emotional involvement and magnificence in sacred paintings. The varied historical backgrounds religious contexts of these times resulted in their particular artistic expressions, which had a profound impact on the development of fine art.
Linear perspective
Linear perspective is an artistic technique that creates the sense of depth on a two-dimensional surface by making parallel lines appear to converge at a single point on the horizon line. These lines are subsequently employed to ascertain the proportion of things in the painting or drawing. Artists during the Renaissance created and perfected this method. The understanding and utilization of linear perspective by the Ancient Greeks and Romans is considered to have occurred, but there is a lack of existing evidence to prove this.
The use of distinct horizontal or vertical lines is prominently highlighted in Renaissance paintings of the Crucifixion and the Madonna and Child. Sometimes, the artist may deliberately create a painting that resembles a pyramid in order to ensure visual stability. This involves positioning the widest part of the subject at the bottom and the narrowest part at the top, as the pyramid is considered the most stable three-dimensional shape. As illustrated below, The Madonna of the Goldfinch, which is depicted twice in an edited version to illustrate the horizontal and pyramid shapes.
The pyramid-shaped structure is also evident in Renaissance sculpture. Taking into account the renowned sculpture, Pietà (1498–1499) created by Michelangelo. When viewed from the front, the sculpture consists of a pedestal and Mary’s legs at the bottom. In the middle of the sculpture, Christ is seated on Mary’s lap, noticeably lower in size. Mary’s shoulders and head form the highest point of the sculpture. Similar to several Renaissance artworks, it adheres to the principle of horizontal stability.
The vertical line is another technique used by Renaissance artists to create a sense of stability. Usually, a vertical line is accompanied by a horizontal line, which is why the cross in a crucifixion painting is always prominent. It should also be noted that diagonal lines may still be present. The principle of stability in Renaissance art refers to the central and dominant emphasis of the piece. The three horizontal lines in Andrea Mantegna’s “Crucifixion (1457–1459) are enhanced by the vertical lines in the poles of the three crosses. The three cross beams create the top horizontal line, while the feet of the condemned and the tops of the spectators’ heads create the mid-section horizontal line. The lateral lines in the steps at the base of the structure create the bottom horizontal line. Shown here is Mantegna’s “Crucifixion” artwork in its original form, followed by the edited version.
The Baroque artists of Europe also understood this principle: constructing a composition at an angle to impart energy, induce instability, or enhance dramatic effect (Duvernoy, 2021). In the Baroque period, the visual emphasis on lines is still less prominent compared to the Renaissance. Frequently in the Renaissance, objects are strategically positioned inside the composition to highlight both the horizontal and vertical lines, sometimes even incorporating the horizon itself. During the Baroque period, it was common for the lines of a composition to begin with one portion and then transition to another element that appeared to be unrelated. Indeed, on occasion, the darkness of the background serves as a diagonal line.
In the painting Madonna with Child and St. John the Baptist, (C. 1606) by Guido Reni the horizontal is only emphasized in the window’s base, which takes up less than a third of the canvas and appears to be completely incidental. However, a prominent diagonal line is clearly defined, partially by the boundary of the red curtains, as well as by the positioning of Mary’s head and hand, and Christ’s head and back. There are also two parallel diagonal lines present in the image. One line starts from Mary’s head and extends downwards along her arm, while the other line follows the left arm of John the Baptist and ascends towards the arm of Jesus. It is worth noting that both Mary and Christ are looking directly at John, creating an implied “V” shape in the center of the picture.
The “Madonna and Child” painting, created by an unidentified Baroque Belgian artist, features a prominent line that connects the eyes of John the Baptist to the eyes of Christ and then extends to the eyes of Joseph. Observe that Mary’s eyes are not depicted within the same line as the other three figures, but rather positioned higher to emphasize her elevated position in heaven. The angel positioned above Mary draws attention to her, stressing her significance. The angel’s gaze directed downwards towards Mary forms a nearly vertical line, adding to the visual composition. A third line is formed by the inclination of the angel’s torso, which continues to the top of Joseph’s head. These three lines form a nearly invisible triangle. It is also important to observe that the painting contains an almost complete absence of horizontal elements. Contrary to the horizon, the artist has deliberately employed Mary’s clothing to form a semi-circle at the bottom.
Use of Light and Shadow
Renaissance painting use chiaroscuro to create dimension and depth by manipulating the interplay of light and shadow. This technique was not as radically contrasting as it would later become in the Baroque period. This method allowed artists to cre more realism and softness, giving the impression of space and form that is more natural.
Sandro Botticelli’s The Birth of Venus (1484–1486) is a renowned masterpiece of the Renaissance period. Venus covers her nakedness with her long, blond hair, which has light reflections from being gilded. Botticelli draws inspiration for Venus’ modest pose from classical statues. The Winds, which depict the pair flying in each other’s embrace, are based on an old piece, a gem from the Hellenistic era. The light is evenly distributed, with an almost unreal softness and perfect diffusion on all the pieces of the scene. In Renaissance art, light typically filled the entire frame.
The lighting in Baroque art is characterized by its dramatic nature, serving to intensify the emotional impact of the depicted situation. Tenebrism, which involves the stark contrast between light and dark, is a distinctive feature of the Baroque era, as seen in the artworks of Caravaggio. The bright lighting frequently used to illuminate characters and intensify the dramatic effect of mythological subjects and religious themes. Lighting was employed by painters to draw the viewer’s attention to certain elements, and they began experimenting more with it.
The painting “The Calling of Saint Matthew” (1599–1600) by Italian artist Vocazione di San Matteo features a sole light source. The light selectively lights Jesus’ face and his right hand, while also casting a striking glow on the faces of the other figures. The painting portrays a significant moment of spiritual enlightenment and conversion, a subject that captivated many Baroque painters, particularly Caravaggio. The majority of the details are situated in the shadowed areas, resulting in a remarkable and significant chiaroscuro effect.
Composition
The Renaissance and Baroque art two styles which employed different techniques of composition. In the Renaissance, the primary objective was to attain balance. Each element was carefully positioned. This is seen in Leonardo da Vinci’s fresco: The Last Supper. The painting was created about 1495 specifically for the Church of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan, Italy. Christ is positioned centrally on the table, with the vanishing point directly over his head. On both sides, there are six disciples displaying different degrees of astonishment and sorrow. Located behind the group are three windows, consisting of one sizable window and two smaller ones, symbolizing the Holy Trinity. Every component of this piece is meticulously arranged to form a visually appealing composition that adheres to mathematical principles.
The painting The Entombment of Christ (1603-04) by Caravaggio stands in stark contrast to Leonardo’s masterpiece. This is one of his most renowned masterpieces, which he produced over the years 1603-04. Currently, the Vatican Museums house this painting in their collection. Caravaggio effectively captures the essence of tragedy and drama in the scene by employing a powerful diagonal composition. The dead body of Christ, the men laying him in the tomb, and the two Marys—his mother and Magdalene—mourning are the scenes that catch the viewer’s attention. The scene twists upward, allowing the story to gradually come to light.
Essentially, Baroque art allows the tale to gently develop as the viewer takes in the piece, whereas Renaissance art employed balance to lay the story out on the table (pun intended). The difference can easily be clarified by the Papacy’s intention, as the patron of Caravaggio’s artwork, to prompt individuals to recollect the selfless acts performed by Christ for the sake of humanity. It was a planned strategy to further religious narratives and reintroduce people to the “true” faith.
The Backdrops
In the Renaissance, the backgrounds of paintings are consistently depicted as fully elaborated components. These backdrops, whether they depict the horizon or the back of a room, are remarkably detailed. Therefore, they do not significantly contribute to stability, but they do enhance the sense of wholeness. Take, for instance, Leonardo’s renowned painting “Mona Lisa”: a depiction of a youthful woman seated on a balcony with a completely imaginary backdrop in the far-off horizon. The viewable areas of the balcony still exhibit both vertical and horizontal lines, as does the horizon. The background exhibits a comprehensive depiction, characterized by the distinctive da Vinci-esque sfumato technique, which imparts a slow blending of colors, resulting in a hazy impression. The “Mona Lisa” embodies all the characteristics that define a remarkable Renaissance artwork.
In the Baroque era, the backdrops are seen as insignificant to the point that they are frequently obscured by being completely darkened. However, it is worth noting that Renaissance artists occasionally employed this technique while creating portraits, although it was not as commonly used. However, Baroque artists skillfully exploit this principle to intensify the dramatic effect of stark lighting in their paintings. Bev Doolittle’s remarkable artwork Unknown Presence (1981) exhibits a remarkably horizontal orientation, with almost half of its surface enveloped in complete darkness. The painting depicts a solitary traveler from the 19th century and his vigilant horse standing by their campfire. They were captivated by the darkness, which had a profound impact on their focus. Their reactions, as the traveler reaches for his rifle, convey astonishment, caution, alertness, and possibly even a hint of terror.
The darkness depicted in this painting holds significant importance. It doesn’t matter what it is that has awoken the traveler and his horse to this degree. The darkness, effectively enhances the dramatic impact of the traveler’s emotions for the viewers. He gazes into the darkness, and we follow suit. We strain our eyes and attempt to concentrate on the black paint, much like the traveler is or will be doing in the darkness, trying to discover any slight indication of what lies ahead.
This is a prominent illustration of the skillful application of a technique known as “tenebrism,” which can be interpreted as either the blackness itself or the sharp contrast between the illuminated region and the surrounding darkness. It is referred to as “dramatic illumination” and is achieved by using extremely dark pigments, not limited to black, and employing highly pronounced “chiaroscuro,” which is the term for the effect of light coming from a single direction or source. The artists of the Baroque period employed the technique of “tenebrism” with remarkable proficiency throughout a span of 150 years.
Considering the version of Prometheus Bound (1611-1612) by Peter Paul Rubens, in which the tenebrism carries the eagle’s back into the depths of destiny. In his painting “Raising of the Cross” (1610-1611), the Rubens employs tenebrism to create a dramatic effect behind the head of Christ. Tenebrism is a technique that can evoke a feeling of gloom or emptiness, or it can be employed to highlight the dramatic effect of a brief, illuminated action.
Renaissance vs. Baroque Architecture
Scale and Emotion
Renaissance architecture is rational and human-scaled, while Baroque architecture strives to both awe audiences through its massive size and profound emotional content. The two styles have entirely distinct histories, goals, and modes of expression. Renaissance architecture is characterized by the use of classical elements and the creation of spacious, orderly, and logical structures that emphasize elegance and harmonious proportions (Payne, 2009). This is evident in the renowned Basilica of San Lorenzo in Florence.
Baroque compositions exhibit grandeur, sensuous opulence, dramatic intensity, vibrant energy, dynamic motion, heightened tension, emotional exuberance, and a propensity to dissolve boundaries between different art forms. The art represented the social structure of the time, which was characterized by a hierarchical and patriarchal culture. It was created and utilized by those in positions of authority, such as the church, absolute rulers, and the nobility. Its purpose was to both persuade and impress, while also conveying wealth and significance.
The Church of the Gesù has a layout that includes a solitary aisle, side chapels, and a spacious dome situated above the nave and transepts. This architectural arrangement subsequently became a model for several Baroque churches. The objective here is to evoke a sense of wonder by the extensive utilization of gold, vivid frescoes, and embellishments that occupy every possible area. Everything appears irrational, yet it is an endeavor to leave the audience astounded, insignificant, and impotent in the face of such opulence.
It is crucial to note that the construction of such massive and intricate structures typically spanned several centuries. Consequently, in architecture, it is common to observe a fusion of Renaissance and Baroque styles, among others.
Use of classical forms and Elements
Renaissance architecture incorporates classical architectural elements derived from ancient Greece and Rome. Although it may employ these elements in innovative ways or modify their proportions significantly, it does not engage in extensive experimentation with them. The vocabulary of Renaissance architecture is comprised of classical orders and architectural features, including columns, pilasters, pediments, entablatures, arches, and domes. Vitruvius’ writings had a significant influence on the Renaissance’s conceptualization of architectural beauty. Renaissance architecture shares similarities with classical architecture, as it is distinguished by its balanced design, precise mathematical proportions, and a measurement system based on the human scale.
Renaissance facades exhibit vertical axis symmetry. Church façades from this period typically feature a pediment on top and are structured with pilasters, arches, and entablatures. The columns and windows exhibit a gradual movement towards the center. The Cathedral of Pienza (1459-62) is a prime example of the earliest authentic Renaissance facades. It is credited to the renowned Florentine architect Bernardo Gambarelli, also known as Rossellino.
In the Renaissance era, architects included columns and pilasters into their designs, drawing inspiration from the Roman orders of columns such as Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite. The orders can be categorized as either structural, providing support for an arcade or architrave, or solely decorative, placed on a wall in the shape of pilasters.
The primary objective of Renaissance architects was to employ columns, pilasters, and entablatures as a cohesive and unified structure. The Old Sacristy (c. 1421–1440) by Brunelleschi was one of the first building designs use pilasters as an integrated unit
Classical Roman Columns: Orders of Architecture in the Greek Columns
During this time, the dome is widely utilized as a huge structural element that is visible from the outside as well as a way to roof smaller areas that are only visible from the inside.
Renaissance windows can be arranged in pairs and placed within a semicircular arch. They may have square lintels and triangular or segmental pediments, which are frequently used interchangeably. An exemplary example in this regard is the Palazzo Farnese in Rome, which was initiated in 1517. During the Mannerist period, architects used the “Palladian” arch, which included a tall semicircular entrance at the top, accompanied by two smaller square openings on either side. Windows had the purpose of illuminating the interior of the building and, in the context of residential architecture, providing a glimpse of the surrounding scenery. Stained glass, while occasionally found, was not a dominant characteristic in Renaissance windows.
The Palazzo Farnese in Rome showcases the distinctive Renaissance style of using square lintels and alternating triangular and segmental pediments in its windows.
Baroque architecture is characterized by the presence of domes, grand staircases, columns, and pediments adorned with elaborate carvings and decorations. In contrast, Renaissance architecture is typically characterized by its classical and restrained nature, showcasing straight and simple lines with little embellishments.
Several ecclesiastical structures in Baroque Europe were designed following the Italian model of a basilica with a cross-shaped dome and nave. However, the architectural approach taken in these buildings differed significantly from earlier styles. The church of Santa Susanna, constructed by Carlo Maderno, was one of the early Roman structures that deviated from the traditional Mannerist style. The construction is made complex by the dynamic rhythm of columns and pilasters, the central massing, and the protrusion and condensed central ornamentation. There is a budding sense of humor in the way the rules of classic design are being approached, while still maintaining a high level of precision and strictness.
This church’s design components indicated a deviation from the dominant Mannerist architectural style of that era.
Baroque architecture, drawing inspiration from Hellenistic cultural influences, creatively manipulated ancient forms while also introducing novel architectural elements. For example, Renaissance domes were consistently circular and frequently hemispherical, whereas Baroque rooms could be elliptical or incorporate curved or distorted linear elements, or employ columns in innovative manners. Baroque architecture typically has a greater degree of embellishment.
The Church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane in Rome, Italy, was commissioned in 1634 and constructed between 1638 and 1646. The façade was later completed in 1677. This Roman church was specifically planned by Francesco Borromini to serve as a monastery for a small community of Spanish monks. Despite its modest scale, this structure serves as an excellent illustration of how Baroque architecture emphasizes the sense of grandeur. The curving and undulating exterior was often cited as a prominent feature in subsequent Baroque architecture.
During the Baroque era, space was described as “operatic”. Rococo was a progression of the Baroque style, characterized by a more whimsical and theatrical approach. It frequently served as an ornamental addition to preexisting Baroque, Renaissance, or Romanesque spaces.
Symmetry and Proportion
Renaissance architecture emphasizes balance and symmetry, drawing inspiration from classical antiquity, while Baroque design aims to generate motion and theatricality through asymmetrical forms and dynamic arrangements. However, symmetry plays a key role in Baroque architecture. There is a concerted effort to attain perfect equilibrium, particularly in the design of the buildings’ exteriors. This approach bears resemblance to the Renaissance and its methodologies.
Renaissance art and architecture employed mathematically exact compositions and designs that investigated ideal harmony and the golden ratio. Artists and designers meticulously juxtaposed features of height, symmetry, width, and proportion to establish a sense of tranquil organization and stability. The utilization of horizontal and vertical lines played a crucial role in enabling them to accomplish these visual effects. Architects employed a harmonious arrangement of arches, domes, pediments, and columns, adhering closely to the principles established by classical design.
The Florence Cathedral (Il Duomo) designed by Filippo Brunelleschi, features a massive dome, one of the largest in the world, constructed using techniques inspired by Roman engineering.
In contrast, the Baroque period built upon the naturalistic accomplishments of the Renaissance and intensified them to create a more theatrical and dramatic impact. Key characteristics of art include a strong contrast between light and dark, intense lighting, elongated figures, and exaggerated depictions of movement. By utilizing strong diagonal compositions, they were able to evoke dynamic sensations of tension, disruption, and discomfort. The unconventional effects generate a sense of thrill and risk, captivating us with the dramatic nature of the situation. Baroque sculpture is equally intricate, frequently incorporating figures into dynamic, energized moments akin to actors in a play, with a variety of optimal viewing angles.
Decoration
Renaissance architecture employed a form of classicism characterized by flat surfaces. Buildings exhibit a more restrained approach to embellishment, employing classical orders and proportionate materials. In contrast, Baroque architecture is distinguished by its opulent ornamentation, grandiose proportions, and intricate detailing. This implies that the building’s walls lack intricate embellishments with significant physical depth. Examining the Baroque architecture in Italy reveals its extensive utilization of decoration. In order to enhance the angularity of the buildings, curved lines are consistently avoided in their designs. The majority of the structures have rectilinear characteristics, with just a limited number of arches. Renaissance artists were engaged in constructing flood defences, fortifications, grand public fountains, and urban planning, which, although less aesthetically pleasing, had utilitarian purposes.
The mastery of geometrical shapes is indispensable in Renaissance architecture, as it guarantees the longevity of a structure and optimizes the utilization of space. Stability is a defining attribute not just of a robust construction, but also of a building’s towering height and majestic appearance.
The vividly adorned interiors of most Renaissance structures are an essential inclusion on this list, even though they may not strictly align with architectural features. As a result of advancements in both materials and techniques, frescoes are frequently linked to high Renaissance art too. The Sistine Chapel is a prime example where architecture effectively complements a stunning painted interior.
The more ornate and creative Mannerism emerged from Renaissance architecture as the 16th century went on. The courtyard of Galeazzo Alessi’s (1512–1572) Palazzo Marino in Milan, which was finished in 1558 CE, is a fine illustration of this shift in mood. It is a dramatic presentation in which ornamental sculpture nearly completely obscures classical elements.
The ceilings of the Baroque era exhibit distinct dissimilarities compared to those of the Renaissance. A fresco painting was often used to embellish the ceiling of a Basilica or Italian castle during the Renaissance. Baroque ceilings not only showcase paintings, some of which are highly detailed, but they also incorporate a significant amount of gold and an array of design elements integrated into the architectural structure. The wooden ceiling in the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore exemplifies the ornamental characteristics of the Baroque style. The style characterized by an abundance of gold is referred to as lacunar ceilings, which are distinguished by their recesses that are adorned with either painted or gilded gold.
French Baroque art and architecture popularized artistic techniques that were employed to create lifelike visual deceptions, generally referred to as trompe l’oeil (“trick the eye”). This artistic style featured hyperrealistic objects, such as painted windows, that created the illusion of actual windows for the viewer.
Baciccio, “Glory to the Name of Jesus,” Church of Gesù, Rome is an example of Baroque trompe l’oeil – painters challenge the conventions of Renaissance, fixed-point perspective.
Frequently Asked Questions About Renaissance and Baroque Art Periods
What sets the renaissance apart from other artistic eras?
Renaissance art is distinguished by its revival of classical ideals of antiquity, emphasizing humanism, celebration of the natural world, proportion, and perspective, which led to more realistic and anatomically accurate art. This period also saw a flourishing of scientific inquiry and intellectual exploration, which was reflected in the art through detailed observation and a focus on individualism.
How do the compositions of baroque art compare to those of other periods?
Baroque art is characterized by dramatic compositions, intense emotional expressions, and dynamic movement, often utilizing intense contrasts of light and shadow (chiaroscuro). This differs from the more balanced and harmonious compositions of the Renaissance, which emphasized symmetry and proportion, and from the more restrained and formal compositions of the Neoclassical period, which sought to emulate the simplicity and elegance of classical antiquity. Rococo compositions are lighter and more playful, with intricate details and pastel colors.
How did the role of the viewer change in the baroque period?
In the Baroque era, the role of the viewer became more dynamic and interactive. Artists employed techniques such as dramatic lighting, intense emotion, and vivid movement to engage the viewer directly, often making them feel as if they were part of the scene. This shift aimed to evoke a more emotional and immersive experience, drawing the viewer into the artwork’s narrative.
What other Art Movements are similar to Baroque and Renaissance?
Renaissance and Baroque art remain relevant today as they continue to influence contemporary art and culture. They were followed by several others that share some similarities in style, subject matter, and historical context.
- Mannerism (Late Renaissance) which spanned from 1520 to 1600. Mannerism is a distinct style which is characterized by elongated figures, exaggerated poses, and unusual compositions. Mannerism emerged as a reaction to the harmonious and proportionate compositions of the High Renaissance.
- Rococo which spanned from 1730 to 1770 was characterized by ornate, light, and decorative. Rococo art often features pastel colors, playful themes, and elaborate ornamentation. It is seen as a continuation and evolution of Baroque art but with a lighter, more playful tone.
- Neoclassicism which lasted between the Late 18th century and early 19th century was inspired by the classical art and culture of Ancient Greece and Rome. Emphasizes simplicity, straight lines, and an appeal to reason. Neoclassicism emerged as a reaction to the ornate and elaborate Rococo style.
- Romanticism which lasted from Late 18th century to mid-19th century emphases on emotion, individualism, and nature. Romanticism often depicted dramatic scenes, intense emotions, and the sublime in nature.
References
- Payne, A. (2009). Materiality, crafting, and scale in Renaissance architecture. Oxford art journal, 32(3), 365-386.
- Duvernoy, S. (2021). Baroque Architecture. In Handbook of the Mathematics of the Arts and Sciences (pp. 1261-1276). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
- Hibbard, H. (1966). Renaissance and Baroque.